Mary Jo Bowman
March 1, 2007

I. Introduction

I鈥檓 going to be preaching on Psalm 51, and in a minute or two I鈥檒l be asking you to read the Psalm with me from the hymnal. Please go ahead and turn to that now鈥攊t鈥檚 #818. 1

But, first let me tell you a story. It seems that a young priest in the 1970s was so taken with the latest bestseller 鈥淚鈥檓 Okay, You鈥檙e Okay鈥� that he gave it a rave review in one of his sermons. When he was greeting people at the door afterwards, he asked one of his parishioners what he thought of the sermon. The man responded, 鈥淚 haven鈥檛 read the book. Maybe it really is better than the Bible. But as you were preaching I kept thinking of Adam and Eve, Moses and Aaron and the golden calf. And David and Bathsheba. Even more, I kept thinking of Christ on the Cross saying to those who were watching him die: 鈥業f everybody鈥檚 okay, what am I doing up here?鈥欌��2

If I鈥檓 okay and you鈥檙e okay, then we don鈥檛 need Lent or Easter. We don鈥檛 need God鈥檚 mercy. We don鈥檛 need confession, repentance, forgiveness, and a clean heart. We don鈥檛 need Psalm 51! However, I believe none of us is okay. I chose to preach on Psalm 51 because I think we need to recover the practice of confession鈥攁s individuals and as a church.

In some liturgical traditions and monastic communities, Psalm 51 is used frequently鈥攚eekly or even daily鈥攊n communal prayers. However, I鈥檝e noticed that confession of sin is often not included in the worship services at my church, and I tend to forget to include confession in my personal prayers. I think that needs to change.

Psalm 51 can serve as a model prayer and help us revitalize the practice of confession. Taking a careful look at this psalm of penitence and lament3 may help us to reflect on our own practices of prayer and worship, and how confession of sin and God鈥檚 creative work of cleansing shapes our ministry.

If you look the psalm in the hymnal, you鈥檒l notice that it鈥檚 basically the聽NRSV, with a few changes in wording. Notice that the hymnal leaves out vs. 13-14, which is kind of disappointing to me because I think they are especially important. I鈥檒l read them myself as we come to that point, between the last two sections. There are two more verses at the very end that are also not printed here, and because of time I am not going to deal with them, except to say that vs. 18-19 are believed to have been a later addition to the Psalm, after the restoration of the temple.4 These last verses remind us that Psalm 51 has a communal as well as a personal message. I encourage you to look them up on your own.

As we read the psalm together, I invite you to notice that all the way through, the psalmist speaks directly to God. Notice the rich variety of words about who God is and what God is asked to do, about the reality of human sin and God鈥檚 creative work of cleansing and making new. And notice that towards the end the psalm the focus shifts from the inward work of confession to reaching outward in teaching and testimony.

Please join me in reading the psalm together.

II.Section 1: vs. 1-2 Plea for mercy God鈥檚 and forgiveness (Address to God)

This psalm begins with 鈥淗ave mercy on me, O God.鈥� This is the best place for confession to begin: with an appeal to God鈥檚 steadfast love and abundant mercy, or as the聽NIV聽translates it: 鈥渦nfailing love and compassion.鈥� We find the same Hebrew words about God鈥檚 mercy in Ex. 34:6, where the聽LORD聽responds to Israel鈥檚 first major rebellion鈥攖heir worship of the golden calf (Ex. 32). Even though the people had broken the covenant with Yahweh, God is 鈥渕erciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness.鈥�5 What does a person or community do in the presence of such a merciful God? We can almost see the psalmist fall to his knees, weighed down by guilt. At the beginning of the psalm, there are three words for wrongdoing, the same words found in Ex. 34:7 6 First, 鈥渢ransgressions,鈥� which means rebellion, disobedience, defiance or revolt. It implies a willful act of deviating or straying.7 Second: 鈥渋niquity鈥� which means 鈥渂ending or twistedness鈥�8, crookedness, perverseness9 or guilt.10 And third, plain old 鈥渟in鈥� points to 鈥渇ailure or missing the mark.鈥�11

Facing the reality of guilt, the Psalmist asks for cleansing: 鈥淏lot out my transgressions,鈥� 鈥渨ash me,鈥� 鈥渃leanse me from my sin.鈥� In the OT, sin was understood as defilement, dirt, or stain that created a barrier between people and God. Purity laws and rituals for cleansing recognized God鈥檚 holiness and made provision for cleansing as a regular part of worship.

III. Section 2: vs. 3-6 Confession of Sin (Complaint against self and sinfulness)

While a specific sin is not named in Psalm 51, the superscription connects it with the story of David and Bathsheba, one of the greatest OT soap operas鈥攖he king of Israel, guilty of adultery (or perhaps rape)12 and responsible for the death of a man and an illegitimate child (2 Samuel 11-12). Whether it was written at the time of David or considerably later,13 Psalm 51 acknowledges the recurring problem of sin in the story of God鈥檚 chosen people. David鈥檚 story becomes our story, and gives us an opportunity to recall our own personal sins and those of our church communities, now and throughout history.

The next verse gets more introspective: 鈥淔or I know my transgressions, and my sin is ever before me.鈥� Like an honest look in the mirror. As Eugene Peterson (in聽The Message) puts it: 鈥淚 know how bad I鈥檝e been; my sins are staring me down.鈥�14 There鈥檚 no getting around it, no place to hide.

The Psalmist says to God: 鈥淎gainst you, you alone, have I sinned and done what is evil in your sight.鈥� This echoes the words of King David in 2 Samuel 12. When he was confronted by Nathan, David said 鈥淚 have sinned against the Lord.鈥� (2 Sam. 12:13). What are we to make of these words: 鈥渁gainst you, you alone have I sinned鈥�? Surely, in David鈥檚 case, he sinned against Bathsheba and Uriah, and betrayed the trust of his people. Yet, aren鈥檛 all offenses ultimately sins against God? 鈥攙iolation of God鈥檚 commands15 and failure to honor God?16

The Psalmist tells it like it is鈥斺�淚 have done evil in your sight.鈥� He knows he deserves judgment and punishment. As Peterson puts it: 鈥淵ou have all the facts before you; whatever you decide about me is fair.鈥�17

In verse 5 we find a troubling concept about guilt: The聽NRSV聽says: 鈥淚ndeed, I was born guilty, a sinner when my mother conceived me.鈥� This verse has been used by many throughout church history as a basis for the doctrine of original sin, including a negative view of sex. But let鈥檚 not get sidetracked with that. A better interpretation of this verse focuses on the universal human condition of sinfulness, 18 as expressed in wording in the hymnal: 鈥淚 was born聽in the midst聽of iniquity;聽in the midst of sin聽my mother conceived me.鈥� As the apostle Paul put it: 鈥淎ll have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.鈥� ( Rom. 3:23)

Even though this section of the psalm focuses on the reality of sinfulness and God鈥檚 judgment, it ends with a message of hope: Sin is not the ultimate reality鈥擥od, in divine wisdom, provides a way that brings new life. 19鈥淵ou desire truth鈥攖each me wisdom鈥� (v. 6). The focus on 鈥渢ruth鈥� and 鈥渨isdom鈥� here is similar to these words found in I John 1:8-9: 鈥淚f we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us. If we confess our sins, he who is faithful and just will forgive us our sins and cleanse us from all unrighteousness.鈥�

IV. Section 3: vs. 7-12 Petition for Cleansing and Restoration

Let鈥檚 look at the images of 鈥渃leansing鈥� here. First: 鈥淧urge me with hyssop, and I shall be clean.鈥�(7a) 鈥淧urge鈥� is a strong word鈥攏ot a gentle rinsing. It鈥檚 more dramatic鈥攍ike the process for cleaning out the bowels in preparation for a colonoscopy. (I鈥檝e never had that done, but I hear it requires spending all day or all night very close to a toilet鈥攁 rather smelly, painful process!) That鈥檚 purge! And what is hyssop? It鈥檚 an herb used in cleansing ceremonies, as described in Leviticus (14:2-9 and 48-53)鈥攆or persons with leprosy, and also for cleansing of contaminated houses. Also, a hyssop brush was used to sprinkle blood on the doorposts at Passover (Ex.12:22).20 So, hyssop is a metaphor for rituals of purification and deliverance. The second image of cleansing is gentler: 鈥淲ash me, and I shall be whiter that snow.鈥� Or as the hymnal puts it: 鈥淿purer_ than snow.鈥� With cleansing comes joy, a kind of lightness, like the fragrance of a spring rain shower or the freshness of clean bed sheets.

But what does this sentence mean: 鈥渓et the bones that you have crushed rejoice鈥�? I鈥檓 not sure what to make of the suggestion that God is the one who crushed the bones鈥攑erhaps that is an expression of being judged and humbled by God. Several Psalms speak of problems with bones. For example, in Ps. 22:14, the psalmist鈥檚 bones are out of joint. And in Ps. 38: 3: 鈥淭here is no health in my bones because of my sin.鈥� In the ancient world, illness and other misfortunes were often understood to be a result of sin. I鈥檓 not sure what I think about this idea, but I do know about bone pain and how deep and excruciating it can be. When I broke my arm and had surgery on it鈥攁fter the metal plates were screwed onto my bones, and before the morphine was hooked up鈥擨 felt like I had a truck crushing my arm!

Then there is the request: 鈥淗ide your face from my sins鈥� (v 9a). In OT language, when God hides his face from someone, God is showing disapproval.21 Here, the psalmist asks God to turn away from the sin, not from the person. 鈥淏lot out all my iniquities鈥� can be understood as a plea to remove the sins from God鈥檚 sight鈥攍ike removing a stain from cloth, so the sin can no longer be seen or remembered.

This brings us to the most familiar part of this psalm, and a significant turning point.

鈥淐reate in me a clean heart, O God, and put a new and right spirit within me.鈥� The word 鈥渃reate鈥� used here is the Hebrew word that is used only for God鈥檚 work鈥攖he same word used in the creation story in Genesis, and in Isaiah 43:122: 鈥淭hus says the Lord who created you鈥�, who formed you鈥�; do not fear, for I have redeemed you.鈥� God is able to make us new! Heart and spirit鈥攖he core of who we are, our breath, our life, our will. This is a chance to begin again!

With this cleansing comes a desire to be in God鈥檚 presence. 鈥淒o not cast me away from your presence. And do not take your holy spirit from me.鈥� (v 11). Don鈥檛 reject me. As聽The Message聽says: 鈥淒on鈥檛 throw me out with the trash.鈥�23 (v 12) 鈥淩estore to me the joy of your salvation, and sustain in me a willing (or generous) spirit.鈥�

This familiar part of the psalm reminds us God can take our brokenness and make something new鈥攖o restore our connection with God, to replace remorse with joy. This good news evokes a voluntary, public response鈥攁 vow of praise鈥攐n the part of the psalmist. This is typical of laments, but is something I had never noticed before in Psalm 51.

V. Section 4: vs. 13-17 Vow of Praise and Public Contrition

In the final section of the Psalm, we find a vow to teach others and to praise. Let me read the two verses that are missing from the version in the hymnal: (v 13) 鈥淭hen I will teach transgressors your ways, and sinners will return to you.鈥� This is a promise to tell others about God, with confidence that they will repent. And vs 14: 鈥淒eliver me from bloodshed, O God of my salvation, and my tongue will sing aloud of your deliverance.鈥� Evidently, the psalmist is not quite done with asking for God鈥檚 help鈥斺�渟ave me from 鈥榖loodshed鈥欌�攔escue me from 鈥済uilt鈥� or 鈥渧iolence.鈥�24 There is a hint of bargaining with God here: 鈥淗elp me, and I promise to praise you.鈥� Whatever the motive, the movement is into the public, social arena of testimony and worship: 鈥淥 Lord, open my lips, and my mouth will declare your praise.鈥�(v 15)

鈥淔or you have no delight in sacrifice; if I were to give a burnt offering, you would not be pleased.鈥� (vs 16) This sounds very much like the OT prophets, like in Hosea 6:6 鈥淚 desire steadfast love and not sacrifice; the knowledge of God and not burnt offerings.鈥� God wants humility. 鈥淭he sacrifice acceptable to God is a broken spirit; a broken and contrite heart, O God, you will not despise.鈥� (vs 17)

The kind of worship God desires is for us to bring our whole selves to God, in honest repentance, so that we can be cleansed, made new, and given a message of joy and hope to share with others.

VI. Conclusion

Finally, the practice of confession includes not only looking inward and telling God that we are sinners and naming what we have done wrong. The practice of confession includes affirming that we need God and that we trust God to heal us and make us new. And even more, what I noticed for the first time in Psalm 51 is that confession actually prepares us and equips us for ministry: As verse 13 says: 鈥淚 will teach transgressors your ways and sinners will return to you.鈥� There is a striking element of reaching out in mission鈥攖eaching, calling others to repentance and new life.

Praying Psalm 51 invites us into mission, to sharing the good news of God鈥檚 mercy鈥攑articipation in what the apostle Paul called 鈥渢he ministry of reconciliation.鈥� In the end, Psalm 51 points us to the kind of ministry expressed in Paul鈥檚 words found in 2 Corinthians 5:17-20: 25

So, if anyone is in Christ, there is a new creation; everything old has passed away; see, everything has become new! All this is from God, who reconciled us to himself through Christ, and has given to us the ministry of reconciliation; that is, in Christ God was reconciling the world to himself, not counting their trespasses against them, and entrusting the message of reconciliation to us. So we are ambassadors for Christ, since God is making his appeal through us; we entreat you on behalf of Christ, be reconciled to God. (NRSV)

Let鈥檚 pray: Have mercy on us, O God. We have sinned against you. Purge us, wash us, make us new creations by your spirit. Then we will teach others about you, as your ambassadors.

Deliver us from evil and equip us to be your ministers of reconciliation. O Lord, open our lips, and our mouths will declare your praise. Accept our humble prayer, in Jesus鈥� name, Amen.

Bibliography

Anderson, Bernhard W.聽Out of the Depths: The Psalms Speak for Us Today. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000.

Brueggemann, Walter, Charles B. Cousar, Beverly R. Gaventa, and James D. Newsome.聽Texts for Preaching: A Lectionary Commentary Based on the Nrsv, Year聽A. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1995.

Forest, Jim.聽Confession: Doorway to Forgiveness. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2002.

Hymnal: A Worship Book. Elgin, Illinois: Brethren Press; Newton, Kansas: Faith and Life Press; Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Mennonite Publishing House, 1992.

J. Clinton McCann, Jr. 鈥淧salm 51:1-19.鈥� In聽The New Interpreter鈥檚 Bible, edited by John J. Collins, 883-89. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.

Peterson, Eugene H.聽The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language. Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2002.

Tate, Marvin E. 鈥淎 Confession of Sin and Prayer for Forgiveness (51:1-21).鈥� In聽Word Biblical Commentary, edited by John D. W. Wattts. Dallas: Word Books, 1990.

Waltner, James H.聽Believers Church Bible Commentary: Psalms. Edited by Elmer A. Martens and Willard M. Swartley, Believers Church Bible Commentary. Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Herald Press, 2006.

Young, Robert.聽Young鈥檚 Analytical Concordance to the Bible. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers.

Endnotes

1.听Hymnal: A Worship Book, (Elgin, Illinois: Brethren Press; Newton, Kansas: Faith and Life Press; Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Mennonite Publishing House: 1992).

2. Jim Forest,聽Confession: Doorway to Forgiveness聽(Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2002), 2. Adapted.

3. This Psalm is typically classified as the most important of the seven penitential Psalms in the Psalter. It is also usually considered a lament, with the structure of address to God (v. 1-2), complaint [against sinful self] (v. 3-6), petition (v. 7-12), vow of praise (v. 13-17).

4. James H. Waltner,聽Believers Church Bible Commentary: Psalms, ed. Elmer A. Martens and Willard M. Swartley, Believers Church Bible Commentary (Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Herald Press, 2006), 260.

5. Jr. J. Clinton McCann, 鈥淧salm 51:1-19,鈥� in聽The New Interpreter鈥檚 Bible, ed. John J. Collins (Nashville: Abingdon, 1996), 885. It is interesting to note that Ex. 34:7 does include a judgement on future generations.

6. Ibid.

7. Marvin E. Tate, 鈥淎 Confession of Sin and Prayer for Forgiveness (51:1-21),鈥� in聽Word Biblical Commentary, ed. John D. W. Wattts (Dallas: Word Books, 1990), 15.

8. Ibid.

9. Waltner,聽Believers Church Bible Commentary: Psalms, 257.

10. J. Clinton McCann, 鈥淧salm 51:1-19,鈥� 885.

11. Waltner,聽Believers Church Bible Commentary: Psalms, 257.

12. Walter Brueggemann et al.,聽Texts for Preaching: A Lectionary Commentary Based on the Nrsv, Year聽A (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1995), 176. Text is ambiguous about nature of David鈥檚 encounter with Bathsheba.

13. Waltner,聽Believers Church Bible Commentary: Psalms, 256-57.

14. Eugene H. Peterson,聽The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language聽(Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2002), 975.

15. Tate, 鈥淎 Confession of Sin and Prayer for Forgiveness (51:1-21),鈥� 17.

16. J. Clinton McCann, 鈥淧salm 51:1-19,鈥� 885.

17. Peterson,聽The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language, 975.

18. Tate, 鈥淎 Confession of Sin and Prayer for Forgiveness (51:1-21),鈥� 19.

19. J. Clinton McCann, 鈥淧salm 51:1-19,鈥� 886. 鈥淕od desires not sinfulness but faithfulness or 鈥榯ruth鈥�; see Pss 26:3, 45:4). The wisdom the psalmist requests consists of openness to Go and dependence upon God (see Pss 37:30, 49:3, 90:12, Prov 1:7, 9:10).鈥�

20. Tate, 鈥淎 Confession of Sin and Prayer for Forgiveness (51:1-21),鈥� 21.

21. Ibid.

22. Robert Young,聽Young鈥檚 Analytical Concordance to the Bible聽(Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers), 210.

23. Waltner,聽Believers Church Bible Commentary: Psalms, 259. The term 鈥渉oly spirit鈥� (with a small h) is used only one other place in the OT, in Is. 63:10-11, in a communal psalm of lament about Israel鈥檚 history with God鈥斺�淭hey rebelled and grieved his holy spirit.鈥�

24. J. Clinton McCann, 鈥淧salm 51:1-19,鈥� 887.

25. Various commentators point to this New Testament corollary.

Mary Jo Bowman
February 15, 2005

Introduction

The stories of several women in Genesis illustrate how deception was used by the people of Israel to tell stories about themselves. By exploring the schemes of Lot鈥檚 daughters, Rebekah, Rachel, and Tamar, this paper will highlight various interpretations of the use of trickery in the stories of patriarchal families. These stories can be interpreted as lessons in the status and character of women in early Israel. They can also be understood more broadly as entertainment, sagas of survival, and expressions of nationalistic pride and even religious piety. Themes of sexuality, alcohol, family dynamics, violence, justice, divine will, customs, and law presented in these stories suggest multiple ways to study and interpret them. We can only hope to glimpse some of their meaning in this brief exploration.

A striking theme throughout each of the stories in this study is that there is no explicit moral indictment of the use of deception. In his thesis on these and other stories in Genesis involving trickery, Adam White asserts that the functions of these stories would be spoiled if the narrator were to pass judgment on the deceptive behavior. The scheming characters 鈥済et away with鈥� scandalous acts. White puts forth four paradigms for understanding the use of deception in these stories: humor, survival, nationalism/patriotism, and exoneration. First, he insists that making a moral judgement about cunning would spoil the humor, irony, and intrigue found these stories. Second, when viewed as stories about survival in precarious social and political settings, deception can be viewed as a necessity for survival when faced with limited options. Third, within a nationalist/patriotic paradigm, stories of deception can be used to express prejudice against and claim supremacy over other nations. Finally, White suggests that tales of trickery were told without a moral tone because deceptive humans are understood as agents of divine will among God鈥檚 chosen people. The narrators are matter-of-fact about deception in various Genesis stories as a way of preserving the 鈥減iety of the ancestors.鈥�1

White asserts that stories involving deception were preserved because they express the 鈥渉ope, dreams, and identity of a people.鈥�2 While his study is not focused solely on the female characters, White鈥檚 conclusions are pertinent to this study of women in Genesis as tricksters. He points out that the narrators of the stories in Genesis saw themselves as 鈥渁piru,鈥� a class of marginalized people in the ancient near east. He cites Naomi Steinberg鈥檚 argument in her work on 鈥淚sraelite Tricksters.鈥� She writes that the motif of trickster is a part of 鈥渁n expression of the values of the oppressed鈥攂oth men and women鈥� where, in a subversive way, the lowly get the upper hand over those in power.3

Melissa Jackson explores the trickster theme in more depth. While trickster stories are common in folklore, especially in African and Native American traditions, she notes that there are many tricksters鈥攂oth male and female鈥攊n the Hebrew Bible. She highlights Jacob as probably the best known. The women featured in this study, Lot鈥檚 daughters, Rebekah, Rachel, and Tamar, are all on her list.4 Jackson summarizes Ann W. Engar鈥檚 description of the unique characteristics of female tricksters in the Old Testament: 鈥淔irst, in using her intelligence, the female exhibits greater understanding of the needs of her family and nation than the corresponding male does. Second, as a matter of faith, she more closely understands God鈥檚 purposes than does her male counterpart. Third, with regard to sexuality, she is not a passive sexual object. She determines when and with whom she will have sex and bear children.鈥�5 With these broad views of how to read these narratives of feminine deception, let us now turn to the stories themselves.

Lot鈥檚 Daughters

In Genesis 19:30-38, Lot (the nephew of Abraham) and his daughters have fled the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, and are living in a cave. The men who were to marry Lot鈥檚 daughters have been left behind. Lot鈥檚 daughters, who saw no other potential men to give them children, plotted to get their father drunk so he would have sex with them. Their scheme worked. They each became pregnant and bore sons, the ancestors of the Moabites and the Ammonites. At first glance, it is easy to agree with Willis: 鈥淭hat the author of Genesis condones or commends Lot鈥檚 daughters鈥� having sexual relationships with their own father is incredible鈥f (this) had been acceptable, there is no reason why they would have felt it necessary to make him drunk鈥heir father would not have approved of such perverted sexual practices 鈥� At the same time, Lot is no less guilty or responsible just because he was so drunk that he did not know what his daughters were doing鈥hat his daughters knew he was so weak鈥s a further reflection on his inferior character and influence.鈥�6

Unlike Willis, White has an explanation for the inclusion of this story in Genesis. In his view, the story serves an ethnological function, representing nations rather than individuals. The namelessness of the daughters further suggests that this story is not meant to portray an historic event. When told from an Israelite perspective, this story functions as an ethnic joke about the incestuous origins of Israel鈥檚 neighbors, a mockery of Israel鈥檚 enemies.7 There is also evidence that his story has Ammonite-Moab origins, which accounts for its shameless portrayal of the women as maternal heroes, and the depiction of Lot as passive.8 This story then serves a patriotic purpose for both the non-Israelite descendents of Lot鈥檚 daughters and for Israel.9

According to Sharon Pace Jeansonne, this incest story needs to be read in the context of the earlier part of Genesis 19, where Lot disregarded the welfare of his daughters. In the face of the humiliating possibility of homosexual gang rape of his guests, Lot offered his virgin daughters to the men on the streets of Sodom.10 It is important to note that homosexual acts were a capital offense in Old Testament law, although for non-Israelites consensual homosexual acts were likely allowed. Homosexual gang rape would have been completely outside the norms of hospitality for the ancient near east. By offering his daughters to the mob, Lot put protection of his guests over protecting the welfare of his daughters.11 Further, Jeansonne points out that Lot was generally inept at protecting his family and put his daughters in a position of desperation regarding their desire to have offspring to continue their family.12 She sees the daughters鈥� trickery of Lot as a 鈥減oetic justice鈥� in the face of his disregard for their welfare. Deception became resourcefulness.13

Rebekah

Our next story (Genesis 27:1-40) is about Rebekah, wife of Abraham鈥檚 son Issac. Rebekah helped her favorite son Jacob trick his father Issac into giving him the blessing intended for his twin brother Esau. In fact, she seems to have initiated and directed the plot. Willis sees all the participants in this event as 鈥済uilty of the grossest sins.鈥�14 According to Jeansonne, Rebekah鈥檚 role in this deception is often viewed pejoratively鈥� as favoritism, disrespect for her husband, and harmful to the family.15 In the Hebrew family system, wives were expected to defer to their husbands, and sons were expected to have a higher regard for their father than their mother.16 Rebekah overstepped these bounds.

An important clue to Rebekah鈥檚 motives鈥攖he prenatal oracle (Genesis 25:22-23)鈥攊s often overlooked. In that part of the story, God reveals to Rebekah what Isaac does not know: Jacob, who would be the second born of the twins, is God鈥檚 chosen. White argues that Rebekah believed that Isaac was attached to the social convention of giving the blessing to the firstborn son, who was Isaac鈥檚 favorite. Issac was unable to see that Esau, a hunter who sold his birthright and chose Hittite wives, was a poor candidate for carrying on the blessing promised to his grandfather Abraham. Rebekah鈥檚 awareness of Issac鈥檚 鈥渂lindness鈥� motivated her to act to fulfill God鈥檚 will. Her willingness to take the risk of bringing a curse upon herself underscores Rebekah鈥檚 determination to fulfill God鈥檚 purposes, even with deception. White notes that some ancient interpreters suggested that God had an active hand in the deceiving, by preventing him from seeing through the sham. 17 Jeansonne accesses Rebekah鈥檚 role in this way: 鈥淭he portrayal of Rebekah shows that women in Israel were viewed as persons who could make crucial decisions about their futures, whose prayers were acknowledged, who might know better than men what God designed, and who could apparently take the steps necessary to support God鈥檚 plans for the community.鈥�18

Along with interpreting this story as a use of deception to fulfill God鈥檚 promise to Abraham, White also points out that this story fits into other paradigms. The rivalry between Esau the hunter and Jacob the semi-nomadic farmer expresses an ethnological theme of the national rivalry, which can be read in the triumph of the younger son (Israel) over the older son (Edom).19 Closer to home, the conflict between Jacob and Esau which began in the womb contributed to a dramatic family saga in which rivalry, deception and humor continued to play out for generations.

Rachel

We turn now to Rachel, daughter of Rebekah鈥檚 brother Laban, an Aramean whose people were noted to be 鈥渃rafty and cunning.鈥�20 Rachel was married to Jacob, as was her sister Leah. Jacob and his father-in-law Laban had a long history of deception and conflict. Rachel鈥檚 use of deception (Genesis 31:17-35) arose out of Jacob鈥檚 decision to take his wives and children and livestock, and to get away from Laban. In the process of packing to leave, while Laban was away for sheep-shearing, Rachel stole her father鈥檚 household gods (vs. 19). Jacob didn鈥檛 know she had done this, so when Laban accused him of stealing them, Jacob declared that whoever was found to possess them would be put to death. When Laban went looking for them, he entered Rachel鈥檚 tent, but did not find them. She was sitting on them, and told him she could not get up because she was menstruating.

The significance of the household gods (teraphim in Hebrew) is crucial to understanding this story. The function and importance of the teraphim is not altogether clear. Most scholars agree that they likely were portable images objects of worship that were believed to protect the family. They may possibly have been images of ancestors, whom the living were expected to consult and honor. In the Old Testament, they were associated with the power to predict the future, or to reveal unknown information. Ownership of these images was connected with inheritance rights.21 Alice Ogden Bellis suggests that the gods represented matrilineal leadership in the family, with inheritance rights to be reckoned through the mother.22

Rachel鈥檚 menstrual blood would have defiled Laban鈥檚 teraphim. In ancient near east culture, menstrual blood was considered unclean. Men were not to touch menstruating women. It is not clear from the story whether Rachel was actually menstruating, or whether she was telling a lie. The point is, she used her wit to escape being found (and executed as the thief), and in the process apparently defiled the gods. We do not know what Rachel believed about the power of the teraphim. Her action can be read as a strong theological statement about the impotence of Laban鈥檚 gods and the superiority of Yahweh. Or perhaps she wanted to claim the power of the teraphim for economic purposes, or to prevent Laban鈥檚 use of them as a primitive compass to find her fleeing family.23 White argues that she was trying to ensure Jacob鈥檚 rightful claim to Laban鈥檚 estate; since Laban had sons of his own, and Laban and Jacob were at odds, this claim had poor chances of being realized otherwise.24 Whatever her intent, she used 鈥渢he way of women鈥� to defy her father鈥檚 control over her destiny and to circumvent the punishment invoked by her impetuous father. Rachel鈥檚 use of deception makes a statement about feminine power amidst a larger drama of deception and counter-deception in which the men are the main tricksters.

Paul Borgman points out that Laban had cheated Rachel out of the promise of being Jacob鈥檚 first wife. By stealing her father鈥檚 household gods, Rachel was exercising poetic justice. Her thievery and cover-up may have primarily been her exclamation of her resolve to leave her father and homeland in solidarity with her husband.25

Tamar

The legacy of deception in Jacob鈥檚 family provides the context for the last story of this study, Tamar鈥檚 deception of her father-in-law, Judah (Genesis 38:1-26). In the midst of a long narrative centered on Joseph ( Judah鈥檚 brother, favored by their father Jacob) we find the story of Tamar. She was the childless widow of Judah鈥檚 eldest son, Er. According to levirate marriage laws, Judah had assigned his next son, Onan, to fulfill his duty to marry Tamar and give her children. He obliged by having sex with her, but each time 鈥渟pilled his semen on the ground鈥�(vs. 9) to avoid providing her with offspring. After Onan died, Judah promised his remaining son, Shelah, to Tamar once the boy was old enough to marry. When Shelah came of age and the marriage did not happen, Tamar saw that Judah was failing to fulfill his responsibility for ensuring that she had children to carry on the family line. Taking matters into her own hands, she disguised herself as a prostitute and placed herself along Judah鈥檚 travel route. Judah propositioned her. She bargained for his signet, cord, and staff (signs of his wealth and authority) as collateral for the payment he promised to deliver later. He lay with her, and she became pregnant. When he learned of her pregnancy, he ordered her execution by burning, the penalty specified for the act of prostitution by a priest鈥檚 daughter (Lev. 21:9).26 Tamar vindicated herself by presenting Judah鈥檚 personal affects as proof that he was responsible for her pregnancy. Judah admitted his guilt and declared that 鈥渟he is more in the right than I, since I did note give her my son Shelah.鈥� (vs. 26).

White declares that this 鈥渇its into the league of stories depicting powerful, self-actualizing women who seemingly begin the narrative on the down side of advantage only to ascend to greatness by cunning and thoughtful action.鈥�27 Tamar obtained justice. She found a way to make Judah provide her with children, to ensure the survival of her people. Remarkably, one of her twin sons, Perez, was an ancestor of David. The story of Tamar and Judah found its way into Matthew鈥檚 genealogy of Jesus. Tamar 鈥渢he prostitute鈥� became a heroine of nationalistic proportions. She moved from belonging nowhere, as 鈥渘either a virgin nor a wife nor a mother鈥� on the fringes of Israelite culture鈥�28 to becoming the 鈥渟ole arbiter of her own fate, the prime mover and protagonist of her own story鈥nd the 鈥渙nly woman in the Bible who is declared righteous.鈥�29 This story goes farther in making a moral statement than the others in this study.

While Brueggemann puzzles over the placement and intent of this story, and suggests that its primary function may be as genealogy, he points out the text makes judgment about relative guilt: 鈥淭amar has committed the kind of sin the 鈥榞ood people鈥� prefer to condemn鈥攅ngaging in deception and illicit sex and bringing damage to a good family. For a moment, until aware of his own involvement, Judah reacts on the basis of that sort of 鈥榤orality.鈥�(v. 24). In ways apparently congruent with popular morality, Judah has spurned the claims of his daughter-in-law. By his indifference, he has violated her right to wellbeing and dignity in the community (v. 11). The narrative juxtaposes his prudent but self-serving withholding and her deceptive harlotry.鈥�30

Summary

Each of these stories of deception by women fits into a larger context of family, culture, nation, and theology. While some commentators rush to add a moral lesson to each story, most of the scholars consulted for this study resist quick judgment and point to the moral complexities of the stories. Because the focus of this study is on the women in the narratives, their status, personality, and motives have been emphasized. These stories provide a window into the lives of women in early Israel, and how they exercised their power as daughters, wives, and mothers. As tricksters, women showed their intelligence, their discernment, their courage, and the power of their sexuality. These stories from Genesis add to the rich tapestry of tales about the people of God鈥攆ull of humor (much of which may be lost in translation), pride, pathos, hope, and moral ambiguity. These stories of deceptive women evoke compassion for marginalized and desperate people. They demonstrate feminine resourcefulness in the face of difficulty. These stories help us to look at the Bible and at ourselves with fresh perspective on the mysterious ways of God.

Bibliography

Bellis, Alice Ogden.聽Helpmates, Harlots, Heroes: Women鈥檚 Stories in the Hebrew Bible.聽Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994.

Borgman, Paul.聽Genesis: The Story We Haven鈥檛 Heard.聽Downers Grove, Illinois: Intervarsity Press, 2001 .

Brueggemann, Walter.聽Genesis: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching.聽Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1982.

Jackson, Melissa. ” Lot鈥檚 Daughters and Tamar as Tricksters and the Patriarchal Narratives in Feminist Theology.”聽Journal for the Study of the Old Testament聽no. 98, June (2002): 29-46.

Jeansonne, Sharon Pace.聽The Women of Genesis: From Sarah to Potiphar鈥檚 Wife.聽Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990.

Meeks, Wayne A., ed.聽The Harper Collins Study Bible: New Revised Standard Version.聽New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1993.

Petersen, John.聽Reading Women鈥檚 Stories: Female Characters in the Hebrew Bible.聽Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004.

Wenham, Gordon J.聽Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 2, Genesis 16-50.聽Dallas, Texas: Word Books, 1994.

White, Adam J. 鈥淥n Getting Away with It: Toward an Understanding of Deception in Six Ancestral Sagas, Genesis 12-38, a Thesis.鈥� 黑料正能量, 2004.

Willis, John T.聽Genesis.聽Austin, TX: Sweet Publishing Company, 1979.

Endnotes

1. Adam J. White, 鈥淥n Getting Away with It: Toward an Understanding of Deception in Six Ancestral Sagas, Genesis 12-38, a Thesis鈥� (黑料正能量, 2004), 5,143-44.

2. Ibid.,144.

3. Ibid.,148.

4. Melissa Jackson, 鈥淟ot鈥檚 Daughters and Tamar as Tricksters and the Patriarchal Narratives in Feminist Theology,鈥澛�Journal for the Study of the Old Testament聽no. 98, June (2002): 31-32.

5. Ibid.: 32. quoting Engar, 鈥極ld Testament Women鈥�,pp. 143-57.

6. John T. Willis,聽Genesis聽(Austin, TX: Sweet Publishing Company, 1979), 269-70.

7. White, 鈥淥n Getting Away with It鈥�,37-38.

8. Ibid.,39.

9. Ibid.,43.

10. Sharon Pace Jeansonne,聽The Women of Genesis: From Sarah to Potiphar鈥檚 Wife聽(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990), 36.

11. Gordon J. Wenham,聽Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 2, Genesis 16-50聽(Dallas, Texas: Word Books, 1994), 55-56.

12. Jeansonne,聽The Women of Genesis,41.

13. White, 鈥淥n Getting Away with It鈥�,46.

14. Willis,聽Genesis,328.

15. Jeansonne,聽The Women of Genesis,65.

16. Wenham,聽Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 2, Genesis 16-50,207.

17. White, 鈥淥n Getting Away with It鈥�,63-68.

18. Jeansonne,聽The Women of Genesis,69.

19. White, 鈥淥n Getting Away with It鈥�,83-85.

20. Ibid.,51.

21. Wenham,聽Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 2, Genesis 16-50,273.

22. Alice Ogden Bellis,聽Helpmates, Harlots, Heroes: Women鈥檚 Stories in the Hebrew Bible聽(Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994), 85.

23. White, 鈥淥n Getting Away with It鈥�,103.

24. Ibid.,96.

25. Paul Borgman,聽Genesis: The Story We Haven鈥檛 Heard聽(Downers Grove, Illinois: Intervarsity Press, 2001), 170.

26. Jeansonne,聽The Women of Genesis,105.

27. White, 鈥淥n Getting Away with It鈥�, 135.

28. John Petersen,聽Reading Women鈥檚 Stories: Female Characters in the Hebrew Bible聽(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004), 133.

29. Ibid.,153.

30. Walter Brueggemann,聽Genesis: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching聽(Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1982), 308-11.